Ceramic tiles Europe

The first ceramic products - bricks and roofing tiles - were widely used by the Romans. However, over time, their production practically disappeared and only from the middle of the 12th century it was revived in European countries. The ceramic production of northern Europe in the 12th century developed along the lines of cathedral and church construction, using mainly floor tiles. By the end of the 12th century, three main types of decor on ceramic floor tiles could be distinguished. The first type is ceramic tiles with pronounced relief. These are large-format square or hexagonal slabs with relief glazed foliage patterns. Some relief tiles were produced by casting. However, the standard technology involved pressing the decor, carved on a wooden board, into soft clay. The second type of 12th-century decorated floor tiles is a simple, linear decoration, hand-engraved using some sharp object. the third type is most widespread - tiled mosaic.

Floors made using the mosaic method were made up of tiles of various configurations, each of which had its own color. The tiles were cut from slabs of unfired clay. Small square tiles were made from fired tiles of larger sizes; deep grooves were applied to them, along which the tiles were broken. The color scheme was achieved by combining various clays and glazes: transparent lead glaze applied to a shard of red clay gave a red-brown tint, the addition of copper oxide to the glaze gave the tile a dark green or black color. When a layer of white clay was applied to the shard followed by glazing, the tile acquired a yellow or bright green color.

The fourth type - the so-called inlaid tiles using clays of contrasting tones - is one of the most important inventions of medieval artisans. This method made it possible to achieve greater variety in the decorative finish of the tile surface. Despite the explosion in popularity of inlaid tiles and their extraordinary adaptability to mass production, other techniques were also used to produce decorative two-tone tiles. The sgraffito technique was often used. This technique, in which the design was cut through a layer of white clay, allowed for more complex compositions, but it was not intended for mass production. The theme of the decor is heraldic and ornamental motifs.

Ceramic tiles Spain

The ceramic traditions of the southern European regions are associated with completely different architectural types. In the Moorish palaces of Granada in southern Spain, tiles formed an integral part of secular architecture. The Moorish style had a dominant influence on the development of ceramic production in central and southern Spain until the 16th century. Even though Spain was largely Christian, artisans, usually of Moorish origin, applied their traditional decorative styles and techniques. The practice of decorating walls with glazed ceramic tiles, which reached true perfection in medieval Spain, originates in the Middle East.

At the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries in Spain, monochrome glazed slabs were widely used as decorative elements for cladding facades. Ceramic tiles appear as an important architectural element in the interiors of palaces and residences in Andalusia. The laying technology used was reduced to cutting out various polygonal shapes from ready-made glazed ceramic blanks of various colors. The cut out geometric shapes were laid face down and covered with plaster mortar. The dried panels obtained in this way were attached to the wall. This technology required great skill, but gave an extraordinary effect of a seamless coating. The technique was called alicatado . Using this method, however, there were difficulties in cutting the tiles. The search for a faster and more economical solution led to the emergence of a new technology - cuerda seca . With this technology, glazes of different colors are separated by strips of manganese mixed with an oily substance, which burns out when fired. With significant cost savings, this technique made it possible to create more complex, non-geometric compositions using smooth lines. This technique has been known since the mid-10th century, but became widespread only in the 15th century.

Design was still oriented towards Moorish geometric decoration, despite the fact that the main manufacturers were Christian, and it was not until the early 16th century that new decorative motifs appeared. These are figurative and heraldic motifs of Gothic designs, as well as Renaissance ornaments combined with Moorish motifs. Simultaneously with the emergence of these technologies, a new one appeared, which consisted of applying a pattern to the surface of the tile using a matrix. In this case, the drawing was obtained in increased relief and covered with glaze of various colors. The technique was called Arista or Cuenca . The dividing strips used in it also prevented the mixing and flowing of glazes during firing. The use of matrices mechanized the process to some extent, which, in turn, increased productivity. As soon as the problem of separation of glazes was solved and the shape of the tiles became directly dependent on their purpose, typologically different groups of tiles arose. In addition to floor and wall tiles, joining tiles for right angles appear: oblong hollow elements, ceiling tiles of various configurations and sizes.

Another trend in ceramic production in medieval Spain was the use of tin glazes. The combination of painted decoration and tin glaze gave rise to one of the most enduring ceramic traditions, influencing the entire European pottery industry. This technique also originates in the traditions of the East and is called Chandelier . In the 14th century, Valencia became the main center for chandelier production in Spain. Before this, monochrome glazed tiles predominated, but from the end of the 14th century and throughout the 15th century, blue luster painting became most important. At the same time, heraldic motifs are becoming very popular. Another theme for decorating the tiles were Gothic floral motifs, animals, fantastic creatures, knights and ladies. Another decorative motif is religious inscriptions combined with floral motifs.

Beginning in the 14th century, quite high-quality production of glazed tiles also emerged in France. However, by the 15th century it gradually died out, replaced by the import of Spanish and later Italian tiles. Only by the 16th century was uninterrupted production established in the territories of France and northern Europe, but now Italy rather than Spain had a decisive influence.

Ceramic tiles Italy

In Italy, the period from 1440 to 1530. can be called one of the most outstanding in the history of the development of ceramic tiles. This was not only a time of brilliant technical achievements, in which potters reached extraordinary heights in decorating ceramic tiles, but also a time of the emergence of new decorative themes, the roots of which go back to ancient examples. By the beginning of the 16th century, direct or indirect Italian influence can be traced across all major European centers for the production of ceramic tiles. Initially, Spanish influence was decisive in the development of tin glazed floor tiles in Italy. The decorative design made extensive use of blue decor and elongated hexagonal tiles laid around square tiles to form a regular octagon. However, during this period, floor compositions appeared in which the Spanish influence was already weakly felt. A decor of independent Italian origin appears - an actively recorded tile surface using portrait male and female profiles in Renaissance clothing, animals and mythological subjects. Painted Renaissance ceramic floor tiles were used in relatively limited quantities for prestigious buildings, mostly in private chapels and residential apartments. Without a doubt, such tiles were an expensive luxury item. In this case, the design was often specified by the customer. Due to the thin layer of glaze, they were not intended for high-traffic public spaces.

By the 16th century tile coverings are becoming an integral part of the architectural space. As a rule, the walls of rich houses were covered with frescoes, and it can be assumed that the same artists influenced the tiled design to achieve artistic unity. Sophisticated decorative motifs were called grotesques. These were frames intricately decorated with arabesques, inside which were placed subjects such as various trophies, monsters, candelabra, and the like. At the end of the 16th century, grotesque subjects on majolica tiles spread widely throughout Europe. Along with grotesque floors, simple majolica was also used. The most common decor is a checkerboard alternation of white and blue tiles. Beginning in the late 15th century, the movements of Italian potters to other European regions led to the export of Italian techniques and styles there. During this period, tiles, along with paintings, become the subject of expensive offerings. Between 1611 and 1618 a whole series of majolica floor painted grotesque tiles was sent by diplomatic mail from Italy to France for Marie de Medici. However, by the mid-17th century, the era of majolica floors as a symbol of power and prestige was coming to an end.

Holland ceramic tiles

The spread of glazed slabs in the Netherlands during the 16th century acquired unprecedented proportions. This was truly the golden age of Dutch ceramics. While majolica floors were used by the wealthy elite, ordinary burghers in 17th-century Dutch cities could easily afford simple painted tiles. They become an integral and typical feature of a Dutch home. The widespread use of ceramic tiles in the Netherlands during the 17th century was the result of several factors. The country's successful economic policy has led to an increase in the well-being of the population of the northern provinces and the formation of a significant layer of a prosperous middle class. Tiles served dual functions, decorative and practical, since cleanliness and order are the basis of the Dutch home. This caused changes in the typological use of ceramic tiles.

The most significant change is the use of tiles for wall cladding. Despite the fact that glazed tiles were previously intended to cover floors, their surface was not strong enough, so it was more rational to use them for cladding walls that were not subject to significant mechanical stress. Wall facing tiles protected walls from the effects of dampness and dirt, especially in coastal cities cut through by many canals. Initially, these typological changes were not accompanied by changes in the tiles themselves. Wall tiles were not a new product, they just found new uses. However, there is still a decrease in the thickness of the tiles and a different design appears, more suitable for its new use. Potters began to replace inlaid tiles (in two clays) with majolica and painted tiles, while maintaining the design of the latter. They used naturalistic motifs from the Italian Renaissance. Animals, fruits and flowers were placed in medallions of various shapes and framed with stylized patterns on a blue background. A decorative motif of tiled corners appears, such as fleur de lis (royal lily). Initially, the decoration covered the entire surface of the tile, but over time the central and corner decorations begin to decrease in size and gradually transform into the well-known Dutch tile decoration - a figurative motif in the center on a white glazed background with small designs at the corners of the tile.

Another characteristic feature of Dutch tiles is the blue monochrome decor. This new design was influenced by Chinese porcelain, imported in large quantities by the Dutch East India Company, as it was in great demand in Holland. The extraordinary popularity of this porcelain led to a complete abandonment of polychrome colors, at least for the urban market. The subjects were themes closer to the population: soldiers, riders, scenes from home life. Many decorative themes were borrowed from popular prints. Chinese porcelain also influenced the improvement of the technological process and organization of ceramic tile production. Until the 1620s The production of tiles in the Netherlands followed the path of the majolica potters of Antwerp, who produced both tiles and ceramic ware. The tableware produced could not compete with Chinese porcelain, and many workshops switched to producing exclusively ceramic tiles. Another part of ceramic tile manufacturers has focused their efforts on improving the technological process. The main achievement in this area is a new technology for preparing clay . Two types of clays were used: red and white. To achieve better mixing, a new technology was developed in which the clays were mixed in water. The resulting sediment had a uniform consistency. The new clay composition made it possible to produce thinner tiles, the thickness was reduced from 15 to 8 mm. This, in turn, has led to more efficient use of raw materials, reduced transport costs, and most importantly, an increase in the number of tiles fired at one time, resulting in fuel savings and increased production.

Around the mid-17th century, the tile market begins to change. Until this time, the main consumers of tiles were Dutch burghers. The increasing prosperity of this population group led to the construction of large urban houses with basements and kitchens, where the use of simple decorative ceramic tiles was fully justified. At the same time, a new market is beginning to emerge in prosperous rural areas. Richly decorated tiles, out of fashion in urban environments, find their way into rural areas. In this case, exotic, decorative motifs quite characteristic of these areas arise. The use of ships and sea monsters in coastal regions is not surprising. By the middle of the 17th century, the export of ceramic tiles increased significantly. Dutch tiles appear in northern Germany, Denmark, northern France, Spain and Portugal. The decor of the exported tiles was mainly based on designs typical of rural areas. Modest fireplace panels are gradually transformed into complex plot compositions. Somewhat later, truly grandiose compositions appeared for large foreign architectural objects. Churches and palaces around Lisbon contain huge narrative ceramic panels. The scope of import of Dutch ceramics was so wide that in order to protect local interests, restrictions and even embargoes on this product were introduced in some countries. During the 17th century, Dutch ceramic tiles found their way to England, France (at Versailles), Germany, Russia and Poland. By the beginning of the 18th century, the ceramic boom in Holland was gradually ending, and tile workshops began to specialize in pottery production again.

England ceramic tiles

In England, by the mid-17th century, there was a clear need for tiles of the Dutch type, especially for cladding fireplaces, bathrooms, and other utility rooms such as creameries and cheese dairies. The first independent production of ceramic tiles that could compete with the Dutch product can be considered the London factory, which arose in 1676, but all technological difficulties were overcome with the help of Dutch craftsmen. Decorative themes included landscapes and biblical scenes, which were copied either from illustrated bibles or from Dutch examples. In the mid-18th century, England began to develop its own individual style. The so-called Liverpool school emerged - polychrome tiles with gallant subjects. Liverpool craftsmen are developing a new technology for transferring a printed image onto a tile and then firing it. Printing the design instead of hand painting significantly reduced the cost of production. This was an economic breakthrough in the production of ceramic tiles. Tiles with a printed design were sold at half the price of hand-painted ones. To improve the quality of the applied pattern, wooden matrices are replaced with copper ones. The price-quality ratio reaches its optimal level, exports increase significantly, English tiles are exported to the other hemisphere, to America. Design - Rococo, gallant and landscape scenes, fable plots and much more. In the 18th and 19th centuries in England, it was popular to build decorated creameries and cheese factories on the territories of wealthy estates. The rich decoration of these production premises was facilitated by the fact that the owner herself participated in the production process. This type of activity was considered a completely female occupation, associated with the concepts of hard work and thrift. Tiles were the ideal material for keeping things clean and cool.

The history of the development of ceramic production in the 19th and 20th centuries is the history of industrialization, new searches, stylistic eclecticism and the revival of forgotten traditions. In the 19th century, England played a leading role in the production of ceramic tiles. The beginning of a new industry with a subsequent wide scope was due to interest in antique objects, as well as the revival of medieval technologies and large restoration work. After two centuries of neglect, the British rediscovered the beauty of medieval buildings, and in the 1840s there began a boom in the revival of inlaid tiles with medieval decorations. Back in ancient times, the Romans brought the practice of mosaic flooring to England. With the development of ceramic production at the end of the 12th century, mosaic coverings began to be produced from elementary geometric figures cut from a clay layer of different colors: red-brown, yellow, brown, green and black. In the 13th century, the inlay technique began to be used: a deep relief was pressed into the body of a red clay tile with a stamp, and white clay was stuffed into the recess, which after firing acquired the so-called “buffalo color.” Based on the medieval technology of inlaid tiles, English craftsmen improved this type of tile, creating a new one called encaustic. In the second half of the 19th century, encaustic tiles found wide use, both in restored cathedrals and in public buildings.

Another innovative idea of ​​the English ceramists concerned the decoration of tiles using blind glazes , the so-called enamels. These dull glazes worked well with architectural ceramics and tiles with high relief decoration. Interiors made with the use of such tiles were the prototypes of numerous hotel interiors, railway stations and other public interiors of the 19th century. New trends at the end of the 19th century, associated with increased attention to the health of the nation, influenced the emergence of public baths and swimming pools, hospitals, etc. Large grocery stores and metro stations appeared. Ceramic tiles were required everywhere. A characteristic feature of the ceramic tiles of these various projects is the use of bright, transparent, colored Art Nouveau style glazes . Outstanding artists such as Walter Crane and Lewis Day turned to tile design, creating a number of wonderful, decorative compositions. By the beginning of the 20th century, all ceramic tile manufacturers responded to the growing popularity of the Art Nouveau style. This short-term (partly perfumery) period was quickly replaced by a new style direction, Art Deco , expressed in the geometrization of forms. Thus, the production of ceramic tiles in Europe has developed in accordance with general historical processes and technical progress - with the use of new technologies in all areas of the production process: the use of new furnaces, drying chambers, improved drying and firing technologies, the emergence of new compositions of raw materials, glazes and many more. to others.

From an artistic and decorative point of view, the design of ceramic tiles has traditionally always been in accordance with the prevailing architectural style or stylistic trends. In the second half of the 20th century, tile design increasingly correlates with the whimsical and fleeting changes in general fashion, which affect all areas of design and therefore undergo various artistic modifications. From an artistic and decorative point of view, the design of ceramic tiles has traditionally always been in accordance with the prevailing architectural style or stylistic trends. In the second half of the 20th century, tile design increasingly correlates with the whimsical and fleeting changes in general fashion, which affect all areas of design and therefore undergo various artistic modifications.