Tufting is currently the most common carpet manufacturing technology. With this technology, a woven base, for example, made of polypropylene fiber, is stitched with pile threads and secured on the reverse side with latex, which is why tufted coverings are also called needle-stitched. Then a base is glued to the wrong side of the covering: fabric (for example, made of artificial jute), made of non-woven materials (most often polyester) or made of foamed polymer materials (latex or PVC).
The popularity of tufting is due to the relative cheapness and huge variety of appearance of the resulting coatings. Thanks to the ability to quickly change the coating density (number of stitches per unit area), pattern, pile height, etc., production is easily rebuilt, and the number of options for tufted coatings is almost limitless. All tufted coverings are pile - the pile can be cut or not cut, high or low, various combined options are possible. Tufted coatings are produced both in rolls up to 5 m wide and in tiles.
The main shapes of spatulas: triangular, rectangular, rounded. The shape of the spatula is determined by four parameters: a - tooth width; b - distance between teeth; c - tooth height; Ɣ - angle between the edges of the teeth.
The article uses designations for classes of cement adhesives for ceramic tiles. Explain how to use them for the common man.
So, let's go in order. 1 -- Solutions or adhesives meeting normal requirements. Ceramic tiles having a water absorption of 3% or more can be laid on such solutions or adhesives . 2 -- Solutions or adhesives that meet increased requirements. Ceramic tiles with any water absorption capacity, including porcelain stoneware, can be laid on such solutions and adhesives . F -- Fast-hardening mortars. Such solutions and adhesives are used for: laying natural stone;ceiling cladding;quick operation of the cladding . T -- Solutions or adhesives with increased slip resistance. Such solutions and adhesives are used for cladding inclined and vertical surfaces - walls . E -- Solutions or adhesives with extended open time. Such solutions and adhesives can be applied in one pass over large areas, and then ceramic tiles can be laid piece by piece . S1 -- Deformable mortars or adhesives. Used for cladding deformable bases: sheet materials, wooden floors, plywood . S2 -- Highly deformable solutions or adhesives. They are used when facing highly deformable substrates: sheet materials, wooden floors, plywood.
BOT-3000E device is designed to determine the static and dynamic coefficient of friction of a wet (wet) or dry surface. The measurement is carried out using a series of test plates made of Neolithic, SBR, Four S, TRL, leather. Used by the Ceramics Center in Bologna.
Technical characteristics of the device
scale (SCOF, DCOF): 0.00-1.00 μ;
speed (DCOF): 20 cm/sec. ± 5%;
Plates available: Neolithic, SBR, Four S, TRL, leather.
Waterproof grades W4, W6 was discussed in detail on the forum . There is a lot of useful information there, read it there, there is no point in duplicating it here.
Expansion joints are gaps in the tile covering and mortar. They are filled with a resistant, elastic material that absorbs the stresses arising in the structures, ensuring the durability of the tile covering. the number of expansion joints in the coating should increase with: - increased temperature and humidity conditions; -- in cases where the supporting structure is easily subject to deformation; -- more rigid tile covering (narrow-seam).
Recommended size of the area limited by expansion joints (EN standards): in buildings (narrow-seam pavement from 4x4 m to 6x6 m; wide-seam pavement from 6x6 m to 10x10 m); on the street (narrow-seam coating from 2x2 m to 3x3 m; wide-seam coating from 3x3 m to 5x5 m).
The dimensions of dividing joints are determined by architects and designers, and the dimensions of expansion joints and abutment joints are determined by tilers. The width of expansion joints must be at least 8 mm, and the width of junction joints must be at least 5 mm.
Expansion joints are a generalized name for all types of movable joints. In wall cladding and floor coverings, several types of seams are distinguished in accordance with their functional purpose - separation,temperature , adjoining seams .
The following standard currently applies to adhesive mixtures for ceramic tiles in European countries:
EN 12004:2007 Mortars and adhesives for ceramic tiles. Requirements, conformity assessment, classification and designation.
The document (EN 12004:2007) was developed by Technical Committee CEN/TC 67 "Ceramic tiles". From the German side, the subcommittee NABau NA 005-09-82 AA "Ceramic tiles (Sp CEN/TC 67, ISO/TC 189)" took part in the work.
Introduced for the first time on November 1, 2015.
The object of standardization of this standard is dry construction adhesive mixtures based on a cement binder. Adhesive mixtures are widely represented on the construction market of dry mixtures of the Russian Federation, each participant of which offers a range of adhesives from three to eight items. This standard was developed taking into account the requirements of European regional standards for adhesive mixtures and is unified with them in terms of classification, acceptance rules and test methods. This standard was developed for the purpose of regulatory provision of manufacturers of dry mixes in the Russian Federation with technical requirements and testing methods for their products, allowing them to obtain results similar to those in EU countries for a comparative assessment of the construction and technical properties of adhesives in scientific, technical and economic cooperation.
Polymer binders are a class of binders based on products from the processing of organic compounds (polymers and copolymers of various chemical compositions). Polymers are used natural, but more often - synthetic high-molecular substances. Among them are divinyl and divinylstyrene rubbers, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride, polyacrylates and polymethacrylates, polystyrene, phenol-formaldehyde, urea, polyesters, organosilicon, etc., as well as combined polymers. Natural ones include natural rubber (latex), bitumen, carbohydrates (dextrin, alginic acid), protein (casein), etc. The choice of hardeners, catalysts and fillers is determined by the type and nature of the polymer used.
Since the production of polymer binders is a rather expensive process, their use in pure form is limited. They are most often used as additives to mineral binders. This creates another type of binder - composite.
The regulatory annex does not establish any mandatory requirements, simply stating that “a test method is available.” As a rule, well-known manufacturers of ceramic tiles do not have any problems with this characteristic.
The moisture expansion of porcelain stoneware, determined according to the EN ISO 10545-10 method, does not on average exceed 0.1 mm/m.
However, if the laying technology is violated, as well as in certain climatic conditions, moisture expansion can cause problems, primarily where ceramic tiles and slabs are laid on concrete that has not reached the required age. In these cases, the upper limit of moisture expansion of ceramic tiles and slabs is recommended to be 0.06% if the test according to ISO 10545-10 is applied.
Thus, the permissible limit for moisture expansion of ceramic tiles should not exceed 0.6 mm/m, which is carried out with a margin for ceramic granite.
In your example, the brick base is placed directly on the ground. It is also clear that porous brick has significant water absorption. Thanks to this, moisture from the soil can easily penetrate into the brick base, and under the influence of seasonal factors (especially temperature fluctuations), changes occur that we clearly observe on the surface. You shouldn’t be surprised or upset, because in this case such a process is inevitable. Below I will give two solutions to the questions asked.
Solution 1 is drastic. Disassemble the brick base completely, pour the foundation or pillars of concrete, make waterproofing, install the base of the stairs, tiling, install a canopy over the porch. This approach will preserve the porch covering for decades.
Solution 2 is simple. Carry out restoration of the existing porch using materials from the entry-level price segment. Then, as necessary, approximately once every 2-3 years, restore the coating and base.
First, you should familiarize yourself with the definitions of the following terms: gypsum , anhydrite . Depending on the method of production, gypsum binders are divided into three main groups:
binders obtained by heat treatment of gypsum raw materials: low-firing (firing and cooking) and high-firing;
binders obtained without heat treatment (non-firing);
binders obtained by mixing gypsum binders of groups I or II with various components (mineral and chemical).
Group I includes: gypsum binders, the main component of which is α- or β-calcium sulfate hemihydrate (or a mixture of them), as well as soluble anhydrite; anhydrite binders, consisting mainly of completely dehydrated gypsum or even partially dissociated anhydrite containing a small amount of free calcium oxide. Group II includes: binders obtained from natural calcium sulfate dihydrate; binders obtained from natural anhydrite. To activate the hardening of these binders, special additives are introduced. Group III includes binders obtained by mixing gypsum binders of groups I and II with various components (lime, Portland cement and its varieties, active mineral additives, chemical additives, etc.). Binders of groups I and II are non-waterproof (air) gypsum binders. Group III binders refer, with some exceptions, to waterproof gypsum binders.
The main characteristics of gypsum binders are: color, density, specific surface area, fineness of grinding; water demand; dough setting time; mechanical strength, aging, etc.
The color of gypsum binders depends on the chemical purity of gypsum raw materials, the content of impurities and the production method. White gypsum binders are obtained from pure raw materials, and gray binders are obtained from raw materials with impurities of mineral and organic origin. Density is determined according to GOST 6427. The values of the true, bulk in a compacted and bulk in a loose state density of gypsum binders are 2.6–2.75 g/cm 3 , 1200–1450 and 800–1100 kg/m 3 . The external specific surface of gypsum binders - this is the total surface of all grains per unit volume or mass - is in the range of 0.3–0.5 m 2 /g, and for high-strength binders - 0.09–0.12 m 2 /g. The fineness of grinding characterizes the degree of grinding of the gypsum binder and is expressed by the residue in mass percent on a standard sieve No. 02, or by the specific surface of the binder powder in m 2 /kg (cm 2 /g). Water requirement is the most important property of gypsum binders and characterizes the minimum amount of water required to obtain a dough of a given consistency. The ratio of the amount of water to the mass of gypsum binder is called the water-gypsum ratio (W/G). Theoretically, hydration of calcium sulfate hemihydrate requires 18.62% water by weight of the binder. In practice, to obtain a dough of normal thickness from calcium sulfate β-hemihydrate, 50–70% is required, for calcium sulfate α-hemihydrate – 30–40%, for anhydrite binders – 30–35%. Waterproof gypsum binders, depending on the composition and production technology, can have a normal density of 30 to 65%. The water remaining in the gypsum stone after hydration evaporates, forming pores and capillaries in it, which negatively affect the physical and technical properties of the binders. The mechanical strength of the hardened gypsum binder is determined by the results of tests of standard samples for bending and (or) compression after hardening. Under standard hardening conditions, the strength of dried samples becomes 2 or more times higher than the strength of samples 2 hours after molding. Thus, the strength of samples from building gypsum after 2 hours is 4–6 MPa, and dry 10–16 MPa; from molding gypsum, respectively, 6–8 and 18–20 MPa; from high-strength gypsum, 15–20 and 35–40; and supergypsum, 22 –30 and 60–70 MPa.
A steel ball falls from a height of 1 m onto the test surface. Using an appropriate device, the rebound height is measured with an accuracy of ±1 mm and the rebound coefficient e is calculated. Alternatively, this method can be used to measure the time up to a millisecond between two impacts of the ball and, based on the results obtained, calculate the height and rebound coefficient. To determine the height of the rebound and the time interval between both impacts of the ball, any other suitable measuring device may be used.
The surface of the ceramic tile or slab is then examined for dents and cracks. Cracks that are not detectable with the naked eye or with glasses that are constantly worn are not taken into account. Destruction of the edges of tiles or slabs with profiled surfaces is noted, but is not taken into account during the assessment.
Yes, you get the essence of the phenomenon. The total pressure for waterproof grade W4 should not exceed 4 atm. Similar reasoning applies to waterproofing. Here, however, it should be understood that some types of waterproofing can work both on pressing (positive pressure) and on tearing (negative pressure). As a rule, the water resistance of the clamp is greater than the water resistance of the pull. The manufacturer indicates specific values in the technical data sheets. They should be followed.
Water resistance is the ability of concrete not to allow water to pass through under pressure that gradually increases to a certain value.
The following grades of concrete are distinguished by water resistance: W2, W4, W6, W8, W10, W12, W14, W16, W18, W20. Numbers 2-20 indicate the maximum pressure in atmospheres at which water infiltration through a 150 mm high cylinder sample has not yet been observed under standard test conditions (for example, for concrete grade W2, the water resistance of samples is 0.2 MPa = 2 atm).
As a rule, ordinary concrete has a water resistance grade lower than W2.
Cement waterproofing materials have a water resistance grade of W2-W16.
Choosing tiles with appropriate characteristics is certainly important, but not the only condition for the strength and durability of the cladding. Careful preparation and proper arrangement of floors and walls are required.
Wall and floor cladding is a multi-layer system consisting of a coating, a layer, a base, and there may also be a separating layer (hydro-, thermal-, sound insulation). External conditions influence and are reflected in the entire cladding system.
The photo on the left shows an installation using an open joint, the distance between the tiles is more than 5 mm (10 mm is often found). The photo on the right shows an installation using a closed joint, the tiles are practically touching each other, the distance is 1 mm or less. Suitable for rectified tiles.
Tufting is currently the most common carpet manufacturing technology. With this technology, a woven base, for example, made of polypropylene fiber, is stitched with pile threads and secured on the reverse side with latex, which is why tufted coverings are also called needle-stitched. Then a base is glued to the wrong side of the covering: fabric (for example, made of artificial jute), made of non-woven materials (most often polyester) or made of foamed polymer materials (latex or PVC).
The popularity of tufting is due to the relative cheapness and huge variety of appearance of the resulting coatings. Thanks to the ability to quickly change the coating density (number of stitches per unit area), pattern, pile height, etc., production is easily rebuilt, and the number of options for tufted coatings is almost limitless. All tufted coverings are pile - the pile can be cut or not cut, high or low, various combined options are possible. Tufted coatings are produced both in rolls up to 5 m wide and in tiles.
The main shapes of spatulas: triangular, rectangular, rounded. The shape of the spatula is determined by four parameters: a - tooth width; b - distance between teeth; c - tooth height; Ɣ - angle between the edges of the teeth.
Classes of adhesives for ceramic tiles
So, let's go in order.
1 -- Solutions or adhesives meeting normal requirements. Ceramic tiles having a water absorption of 3% or more can be laid on such solutions or adhesives .
2 -- Solutions or adhesives that meet increased requirements. Ceramic tiles with any water absorption capacity, including porcelain stoneware, can be laid on such solutions and adhesives .
F -- Fast-hardening mortars. Such solutions and adhesives are used for: laying natural stone; ceiling cladding; quick operation of the cladding .
T -- Solutions or adhesives with increased slip resistance. Such solutions and adhesives are used for cladding inclined and vertical surfaces - walls .
E -- Solutions or adhesives with extended open time. Such solutions and adhesives can be applied in one pass over large areas, and then ceramic tiles can be laid piece by piece .
S1 -- Deformable mortars or adhesives. Used for cladding deformable bases: sheet materials, wooden floors, plywood .
S2 -- Highly deformable solutions or adhesives. They are used when facing highly deformable substrates: sheet materials, wooden floors, plywood.
Device BOT-3000E
BOT-3000E device is designed to determine the static and dynamic coefficient of friction of a wet (wet) or dry surface. The measurement is carried out using a series of test plates made of Neolithic, SBR, Four S, TRL, leather. Used by the Ceramics Center in Bologna.
Technical characteristics of the device
Waterproof grade W4, W6
Waterproof grades W4, W6 was discussed in detail on the forum . There is a lot of useful information there, read it there, there is no point in duplicating it here.
Expansion joints are gaps in the tile covering and mortar.
They are filled with a resistant, elastic material that absorbs the stresses arising in the structures, ensuring the durability of the tile covering. the number of expansion joints in the coating should increase with: - increased temperature and humidity conditions;
-- in cases where the supporting structure is easily subject to deformation;
-- more rigid tile covering (narrow-seam).
Recommended size of the area limited by expansion joints (EN standards): in buildings (narrow-seam pavement from 4x4 m to 6x6 m; wide-seam pavement from 6x6 m to 10x10 m); on the street (narrow-seam coating from 2x2 m to 3x3 m; wide-seam coating from 3x3 m to 5x5 m).
The dimensions of dividing joints are determined by architects and designers, and the dimensions of expansion joints and abutment joints are determined by tilers. The width of expansion joints must be at least 8 mm, and the width of junction joints must be at least 5 mm.
Expansion joints are a generalized name for all types of movable joints. In wall cladding and floor coverings, several types of seams are distinguished in accordance with their functional purpose - separation, temperature , adjoining seams .
The following standard currently applies to adhesive mixtures for ceramic tiles in European countries:
EN 12004:2007 Mortars and adhesives for ceramic tiles. Requirements, conformity assessment, classification and designation.
The document (EN 12004:2007) was developed by Technical Committee CEN/TC 67 "Ceramic tiles". From the German side, the subcommittee NABau NA 005-09-82 AA "Ceramic tiles (Sp CEN/TC 67, ISO/TC 189)" took part in the work.
Guides for porcelain tiles from the manufacturer Italon
to the Books :
1. Guides for porcelain tiles.
Quality standards and specifications 2. Porcelain tiles manuals.
Manufacturing process 3. Porcelain tile manuals. Installation, cleaning and maintenance
These manuals have been translated into Russian. Intended for a wide range of readers.
Introduced for the first time since November 1
Introduced for the first time on November 1, 2015.
The object of standardization of this standard is dry construction adhesive mixtures based on a cement binder. Adhesive mixtures are widely represented on the construction market of dry mixtures of the Russian Federation, each participant of which offers a range of adhesives from three to eight items. This standard was developed taking into account the requirements of European regional standards for adhesive mixtures and is unified with them in terms of classification, acceptance rules and test methods. This standard was developed for the purpose of regulatory provision of manufacturers of dry mixes in the Russian Federation with technical requirements and testing methods for their products, allowing them to obtain results similar to those in EU countries for a comparative assessment of the construction and technical properties of adhesives in scientific, technical and economic cooperation.
Polymer binders are a class of binders based on products from the processing of organic compounds (polymers and copolymers of various chemical compositions). Polymers are used natural, but more often - synthetic high-molecular substances. Among them are divinyl and divinylstyrene rubbers, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride, polyacrylates and polymethacrylates, polystyrene, phenol-formaldehyde, urea, polyesters, organosilicon, etc., as well as combined polymers. Natural ones include natural rubber (latex), bitumen, carbohydrates (dextrin, alginic acid), protein (casein), etc. The choice of hardeners, catalysts and fillers is determined by the type and nature of the polymer used.
Since the production of polymer binders is a rather expensive process, their use in pure form is limited. They are most often used as additives to mineral binders. This creates another type of binder - composite.
Thermal resistance (heat resistance)
The regulatory annex does not establish any mandatory requirements, simply stating that “a test method is available.” As a rule, well-known manufacturers of ceramic tiles do not have any problems with this characteristic.
Humidity expansion of porcelain stoneware
The moisture expansion of porcelain stoneware, determined according to the EN ISO 10545-10 method, does not on average exceed 0.1 mm/m.
Thus, the permissible limit for moisture expansion of ceramic tiles should not exceed 0.6 mm/m, which is carried out with a margin for ceramic granite.
In your example, the brick base is placed directly on the ground. It is also clear that porous brick has significant water absorption. Thanks to this, moisture from the soil can easily penetrate into the brick base, and under the influence of seasonal factors (especially temperature fluctuations), changes occur that we clearly observe on the surface. You shouldn’t be surprised or upset, because in this case such a process is inevitable. Below I will give two solutions to the questions asked.
Solution 1 is drastic. Disassemble the brick base completely, pour the foundation or pillars of concrete, make waterproofing, install the base of the stairs, tiling, install a canopy over the porch. This approach will preserve the porch covering for decades.
Solution 2 is simple. Carry out restoration of the existing porch using materials from the entry-level price segment. Then, as necessary, approximately once every 2-3 years, restore the coating and base.
First, you should familiarize yourself with the definitions of the following terms: gypsum , anhydrite . Depending on the method of production, gypsum binders are divided into three main groups:
Group I includes: gypsum binders, the main component of which is α- or β-calcium sulfate hemihydrate (or a mixture of them), as well as soluble anhydrite;
anhydrite binders, consisting mainly of completely dehydrated gypsum or even partially dissociated anhydrite containing a small amount of free calcium oxide. Group II includes: binders obtained from natural calcium sulfate dihydrate;
binders obtained from natural anhydrite. To activate the hardening of these binders, special additives are introduced. Group III includes binders obtained by mixing gypsum binders of groups I and II with various components (lime, Portland cement and its varieties, active mineral additives, chemical additives, etc.).
Binders of groups I and II are non-waterproof (air) gypsum binders. Group III binders refer, with some exceptions, to waterproof gypsum binders.
The main characteristics of gypsum binders are: color, density, specific surface area, fineness of grinding; water demand; dough setting time; mechanical strength, aging, etc.
The color of gypsum binders depends on the chemical purity of gypsum raw materials, the content of impurities and the production method.
White gypsum binders are obtained from pure raw materials, and gray binders are obtained from raw materials with impurities of mineral and organic origin. Density is determined according to GOST 6427. The values of the true, bulk in a compacted and bulk in a loose state density of gypsum binders are 2.6–2.75 g/cm 3 , 1200–1450 and 800–1100 kg/m 3 .
The external specific surface of gypsum binders - this is the total surface of all grains per unit volume or mass - is in the range of 0.3–0.5 m 2 /g, and for high-strength binders - 0.09–0.12 m 2 /g.
The fineness of grinding characterizes the degree of grinding of the gypsum binder and is expressed by the residue in mass percent on a standard sieve No. 02, or by the specific surface of the binder powder in m 2 /kg (cm 2 /g).
Water requirement is the most important property of gypsum binders and characterizes the minimum amount of water required to obtain a dough of a given consistency.
The ratio of the amount of water to the mass of gypsum binder is called the water-gypsum ratio (W/G). Theoretically, hydration of calcium sulfate hemihydrate requires 18.62% water by weight of the binder. In practice, to obtain a dough of normal thickness from calcium sulfate β-hemihydrate, 50–70% is required, for calcium sulfate α-hemihydrate – 30–40%, for anhydrite binders – 30–35%. Waterproof gypsum binders, depending on the composition and production technology, can have a normal density of 30 to 65%. The water remaining in the gypsum stone after hydration evaporates, forming pores and capillaries in it, which negatively affect the physical and technical properties of the binders. The mechanical strength of the hardened gypsum binder is determined by the results of tests of standard samples for bending and (or) compression after hardening. Under standard hardening conditions, the strength of dried samples becomes 2 or more times higher than the strength of samples 2 hours after molding. Thus, the strength of samples from building gypsum after 2 hours is 4–6 MPa, and dry 10–16 MPa; from molding gypsum, respectively, 6–8 and 18–20 MPa; from high-strength gypsum, 15–20 and 35–40; and supergypsum, 22 –30 and 60–70 MPa.
Test procedure
A steel ball falls from a height of 1 m onto the test surface. Using an appropriate device, the rebound height is measured with an accuracy of ±1 mm and the rebound coefficient e is calculated. Alternatively, this method can be used to measure the time up to a millisecond between two impacts of the ball and, based on the results obtained, calculate the height and rebound coefficient. To determine the height of the rebound and the time interval between both impacts of the ball, any other suitable measuring device may be used.
The surface of the ceramic tile or slab is then examined for dents and cracks. Cracks that are not detectable with the naked eye or with glasses that are constantly worn are not taken into account. Destruction of the edges of tiles or slabs with profiled surfaces is noted, but is not taken into account during the assessment.
Yes, you get the essence of the phenomenon. The total pressure for waterproof grade W4 should not exceed 4 atm. Similar reasoning applies to waterproofing. Here, however, it should be understood that some types of waterproofing can work both on pressing (positive pressure) and on tearing (negative pressure). As a rule, the water resistance of the clamp is greater than the water resistance of the pull. The manufacturer indicates specific values in the technical data sheets. They should be followed.
Water resistance is the ability of concrete not to allow water to pass through under pressure that gradually increases to a certain value.
The following grades of concrete are distinguished by water resistance: W2, W4, W6, W8, W10, W12, W14, W16, W18, W20. Numbers 2-20 indicate the maximum pressure in atmospheres at which water infiltration through a 150 mm high cylinder sample has not yet been observed under standard test conditions (for example, for concrete grade W2, the water resistance of samples is 0.2 MPa = 2 atm).
As a rule, ordinary concrete has a water resistance grade lower than W2.
Cement waterproofing materials have a water resistance grade of W2-W16.
Choosing tiles with appropriate characteristics is certainly important, but not the only condition for the strength and durability of the cladding. Careful preparation and proper arrangement of floors and walls are required.
Wall and floor cladding is a multi-layer system consisting of a coating, a layer, a base, and there may also be a separating layer (hydro-, thermal-, sound insulation). External conditions influence and are reflected in the entire cladding system.
The photo on the left shows an installation using an open joint, the distance between the tiles is more than 5 mm (10 mm is often found). The photo on the right shows an installation using a closed joint, the tiles are practically touching each other, the distance is 1 mm or less. Suitable for rectified tiles.
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